Chapter Seven: Group Discussion: Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving

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 Group Discussion: Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving</b></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG SRC="322cd3e0.jpg" border=0 width="205" height="318" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></b></div> <bR> <bR> <div> Competent communicators manifest flexibility by exercising both their creativity and their reasoning skills when making decisions and discovering solutions to problems. </div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Discussion Procedures</U></b></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Periodic phases of decision emergence</b></div> <bR> <div> Pooles multiple sequence model of decision emergence. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Groups move along three activity tracks: Task, relational, topic</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Groups take three principal paths in reaching decisions. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Unitary sequence-Process in the same step by step fashion</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Complex cycle- -Groups engage in repeated cycles of focusing on the problem, the solution, and back to the problem and so forth.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Solution Oriented-The group launches into discussion of solutions with little focus on an analysis of the problem. </div> <bR> <div> <B>Functional perspective</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Effective group decision making requires an analysis and understanding of a problem before members search for solutions.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Effective decision making groups normally engage in creative exploration of unusual, even deviant, ideas during initial discussions</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Following steps in a systematic discussion procedure (standard agenda) in sequential rigid fashion is probably too inflexible for natural discussion to take place.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Systematic discussion procedures work best when the group decision matters to group members and when members have received training and practice using such procedures. </div> <bR> <div> <B>The Standard Agenda</b></div> <div> <B>Systematic procedures</b></div> <div> <B><U>The six steps of systematic procedures in the standard agenda</U></b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Problem of identification.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Formulate problem into a question of fact, value, or policy</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Problem analysis</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Determine what is problem, how serious it is, what causes the problem</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Solution Criteria</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Standards by which decisions and solutions to problems can be evaluated. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The group should establish criteria before solutions are suggested. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Solution Suggestions</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Group brainstorms solutions</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Solution Evaluation and Selection</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Solution Implementation</div> <bR> <div> <B>Closer Look: Murphy's Law </b></div> <div> <B> </b>Murphy's law states that anything that can go wrong likely will go wrong--somewhere, sometime,  A common mistake made by groups is failure to plan for murphy's law to minimize the chance of error or mishap. During the solution evaluation and selection phase of discussion, groups should address possible mishaps and mistakes. </div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B>Problems of implementation</b></div> <div> <B>Five primary factors influence our resistance to change in a group</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">People are more likely to accept change when they have had a part in the planning and decision making</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Changes are more likely to be accepted if they do not threaten the security of group members</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Changes are more likely to be accepted when the need for change affects individuals directly</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There will be less resistance to change when the change is open to revision and modification</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The three factors (degree, rate, and desirability) affecting a groups ability to adapt to change in a system also affect resistance to change. </div> <bR> <div> When the five conditions are not met, resistance to change and difficulty implementing a group's decision increase. </div> <bR> <div> <B>PERT</b></div> <div> Program Evaluation Review Technique is a decision making method that stipulates systematically how to implement small group decisions</div> <div> The steps in PERT are</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Determine what the final step should look like (e.g.. a no smoking policy for the cafeteria will be instituted.)</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Specify any events that must occur before the final goal is realized (e.g.. the Board of Trustees must endorse the Student Senate decision on banning smoking in the cafeteria)</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Put the events in chronological order</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">If necessary, construct a diagram of the process in order to traces the progress of implementation</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Generate a list of activities, resources, and materials that are required between events</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Develop a time line for implementation.  Estimate how long each step will take</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Match the total time estimate for implementation of the solution with any deadlines</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Specify which group members will have which responsibilities</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B>Group decision-making rules</b></div> <div> <B>Majority rule</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The quality of the group's decision is a particularly troublesome problem with majority rule. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">When decisions are not very important, decisions must be made quickly, and when commitment of all members to the final decision is unimportant, majority rule can be useful.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Consensus becomes increasingly difficult the larger the group becomes</div> <bR> <div> <B>Minority rule</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This occurs when the group designates an expert to make the decisions</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A designated authority makes the decision for the group</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Executive committees must be delegated responsibility for making certain decisions because the workload for the group as a whole is overwhelming or the time constrains are prohibitive. </div> <bR> <div> <B>Unanimity rule (consensus)</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Consensus is a state of mutual agreement among members of a group where all legitimate concerns of individuals have been addresses to the satisfaction of the group.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Not all unanimous decisions can be considered a true consensus. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">True consensus requires agreement, commitment, and satisfaction</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Groups that use a consensus approach tend to produce better decisions than groups using other decision rules because full discussion of issues is requires, every group member must be convinced that the decision is a good one, and minority members will be heard.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Members feel more confident about the correctness of their decisions with consensus and they are more satisfied with the group as a whole. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Use a "<B>stand aside</b>"- a team member continues to have reservations about the group decision, but when confronted does not want to block the group.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Avoid conflict-suppressing techniques such as coin-flipping and swapping (I'll support your position this time if you'll support mine next time)</div> <bR> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>Group Decision Making Rules</b></div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="552" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 23 WIDTH="159"><div> Rules</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="187"><div> Pros</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="180"><div> Cons</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 132 WIDTH="159"><div> <B>Majority Rule</b></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> Quick</div> <div> Efficient</div> <div> Expedient in large groups</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="180"><div> Minorities vulnerable to tyranny of majority</div> <div> Quality of decision suspect</div> <div> Usually alienate minority</div> <div> Under utilization of resources</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 243 ><NOBR><div> <B>Minority Rule</b></div> <div> Designated Expert</div> <bR> <bR> <div> Designated Authority</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> Executive Committee</div> <bR> <bR> <div> Forceful Faction</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="187"><div> Saves time</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> Clear, Efficient</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> Divides Labor</div> <bR> <bR> <div> Faction may be informed/committed</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="180"><div> Expertise hard to determine</div> <div> No group input</div> <bR> <div> Members vie for attention</div> <div> Members vie to impress authority</div> <bR> <div> Weak commitment to decision </div> <bR> <div> Likely we-not me oriented</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 56 WIDTH="159"><div> <B>Unanimity rule</b></div> <div> Consensus</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="187"><div> Quality decisions</div> <div> Commitment</div> <div> Satisfaction</div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="180"><div> Time consuming</div> <div> Difficult</div> <div> Tension Producing</div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div> <B>Focus on Culture: Japan's Nuclear Emergency and Consensus Decision Making--</b> In times of crisis where quick decisive action must be taken to avert catastrophe, deciding by group consensus in inappropriate. </div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B>Closer Look:  The People vs Juan Corona</b></div> <bR> <div> <B>Critical Thinking and Effective Decision Making</b></div> <div> <B>Gathering information</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Gathering information should be a focused effort by all group members</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The group should divide the labor</div> <div> <B>Evaluating information</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Information should be</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Credible</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Current</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Relevant</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Representative</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Sufficient is quantity</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <div> <B>Participation</b></div> <div> <B>Pros and cons of participation</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Involving group members in the decision-making process, especially when decisions affect their lives can be very beneficial</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Participation is not the ultimate remedy for bad decision making</div> <bR> <div> <B>Increasing Constructive Participation</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Encourage contributions from low participants</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Make issues and problems for discussion relevant to the interests of low participants</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Establish a cooperative group climate</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Encourage devil's advocacy and dialectical inquiry.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B>Focus on Culture: Diversity and Participation in Small Groups</b></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The value of verbal participation in decision making is perceived different from culture to culture</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A relative disadvantage in ability to communicate effectively in groups limits verbal participation of ethnic minorities</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Lackluster participation from ethnic minorities in decision making may result from weak commitment to the group</div> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B>Closer Look:  Conducting Meetings Standard and Technological Forms of Participation</b></div> <div> <B>Six common complaints of meetings</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There is an unclear purpose for the meeting</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Participants are unprepared</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Key individuals are absent or late</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Discussions drift into irrelevant conversation on unrelated topics</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Some participants dominate the conversation and stifle discussion</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Decisions made at meetings are not implemented</div> <bR> <div> <B>As the chair, there are several ways you can structure meetings to make them efficient and effective decision-making arenas.</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Don't call a meeting unless there is not good alternative</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Contact every participant</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Prepare a clear agenda and distribute to all participants 3 days or more in advance of the meeting. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Provide accurate information on issues discussed</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Designate a specific time allotment for every discussion item</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Reserve a few minutes at eh end of the meeting to determine whether the objectives were accomplished</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Distribute the minutes of the meeting as soon as possible. </div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="2e518e60.gif" border=0 width="280" height="230" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></b></div> <div> <B>Creative Problem Solving</b></div> <div> <B>General Overview</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity is more perspiration than inspiration</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity is spurred by challenges</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity flourished in cooperative, not competitive environments</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity requires sound ideas not just imaginative ones. </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity requires many ideas</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Creativity requires breaking mindsets and thinking "outside the box"</div> <bR> <div> <B>Specific creative techniques</b></div> <div> <B>Brainstorming and nominal group technique</b></div> <div> "Encourage Wild Ideas"</div> <div> Brainstorming is a creative problem solving technique that promotes plentiful even zany ideas in an atmosphere free from criticism with enthusiastic participation. </div> <bR> <div> <TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="367" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 23 ><NOBR><div> <B>Guidelines for Brainstorming</b></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 ><NOBR><div> Don't evaluate ideas while brainstorming</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 ><NOBR><div> Don't clarify or seek clarification of an idea</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 WIDTH="355"><div> Encourage Zany ideas</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 ><NOBR><div> Expand on ideas of other group members</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 38 WIDTH="355"><div> Record all ideas without reference to who contributed the idea</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 19 ><NOBR><div> Encourage participation of all group members</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Nominal Group Technique</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Individuals work by themselves generating ideas on a problem</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Group comes together and writes all ideas on the board</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Interaction occurs to clarify ideas</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Individuals select their five favorite ideas, write them on a card, rank from 1 to 5</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Rankings are averaged with the highest averages as ones to be selected by the group. </div> <bR> <div> Research shows that nominal group technique generates more and better ideas than brainstorming. </div> <bR> <div> Proper brainstorming should involve first an individual, then a group, followed by an individual brainstorming session. </div> <bR> <div> <B>Electronic Brainstorming </b>occurs when group members sit at computer terminals and brainstorm ideas using a computer based file sharing program.  Electronic brainstorming has sometimes outperformed nominal groups in idea generation. </div> <bR> <div> <B>Framing/reframing</b></div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Our frame of reference can lock us into a mindset, making solutions to problems difficult, if not impossible to discover.</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This strategy has a 70% chance of success or a 30% chance of failure</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">If groups get stumped ask "What if..."</div> <bR> <div> <B>Integrative problem solving</b></div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Expanding the pie</b>-increasing the resources as a solution to the problem. </div> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f000000000.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Bridging</b>-offers a new option devised to satisfy all parties on important issues. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG SRC="135f4080.jpg" border=0 width="500" height="8" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U>Making Meetings Work:</U></b></div> <div> <B><U> Achieving High Quality Group Decisions </U></b></div> <div> <B>by John E. Tropman</b></div> <bR> <div> <B>Excerpts from the book. </b></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>The Rules of Agenda Integrity</b></div> <div> There are two integrity rules</div> <div> 1.  Deal with all the items on the agenda</div> <div> 2.  Do not deal with any items not on the agenda (41)</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Rules of Temporal Integrity</b></div> <div> Temporal integrity has three parts</div> <div> 1.  Start on time</div> <div> 2.  End on time</div> <div> 3.  Keep a rough time order interior to the meeting. </div> <div> Implicitly there is a fourth point,-- do not jerk those members around who have prepared to accommodate the schedule of those who have not prepared.... Meetings need to begin regardless of whether everyone is there or not. (43)</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Rule of Sixths</b></div> <div> One sixth of the items (on the agenda) should be from the past, about four sixth should be from the present and about one sixth should be from the future. </div> <bR> <div> <B>The Two-Meeting Rule</b></div> <div> "Scheduling items of a controversial nature is so important that is has a subrule of its own--the<I> two meeting rule</I>.  When applied in this way the two-meeting rule says that the most controversial items must be discussed first, with no decision at one meeting and must be decided at a subsequent meeting,  (The first must is an absolute must; decision is not made when discussion is promised.  The second must is a conditional must; we hope for, plan for, expect and encourage decision, but we do not force it.  It is in this sense that the must is a conditional one.)  The point of this exercise is to let emotions express themselves... The rule of sixths, therefore, allows for the release of emotions, allows people to prepare themselves psychologically for the items coming up, and encourages creativity and the development of good ideas."   (17-18)</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Rule of Three-Fourths</b></div> <div> The rule of three-fourths is the mail-out rule.  At this point, the packet for the upcoming meeting is sent to those who are scheduled to attend.  The packet includes three general pieces of information</div> <div> 1.  The agenda which includes some useful detail</div> <div> 2.  The minutes</div> <div> 3.  Reports. </div> <bR> <div> "Almost any topic improves if one has a chance to think about it, and the rule of three fourths is designed to provide that opportunity.  Many, many times at meetings we do not have the foggiest idea what is up until we actually arrive and the agenda and reports are passed out.  It is not uncommon for people to study a fairly complex document of several pages in length, single spaced with someone putting on pressure, asking, "Well, what do you think?""...(19-20)</div> <bR> <div>  <FONT SIZE="4" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B> The Rule of Two Thirds</b></FONT></div> <div> "All meetings are divided into three parts--there is the "get-go," the heavy work, and the decompression. If the meeting is only an hour, 20-minute segments become the relevant thirds.  In the last third of most meetings, people shift from using both of their hemispheres to one.  They allocated the other, unused hemisphere to questions--Will the meeting finish on time? What's for lunch? Are the kids at home trashing the house? Hence the last third of most meetings is a time when most people are emotionally closing down the current situation, although not entirely, and opening themselves up to considerations of what lies ahead.  It is, therefore, a suboptimal time to take up key items." (21)</div> <bR> <div> "' <B>Angel's Advocate'</b> a phrase I invented to refer to those individuals who look to the good side, to the positive side, rather than to the negative side when concepts and ideas, especially new ones are expressed. It is a telling point that although we have well-accepted, well-understood phrase for sharing negative views (the devil's advocate), we have no phrase at all for expressing positive views."  </div> <bR> <div> Examples:</div> <div> "Well, there are certainly going to be problems, and we'll get to those in a bit with this proposal.  Why don't we start looking at the positives. How could we make it work? And let's get those out so that we have a pretty good sense of the up side of the thing, and then we'll look at the difficulties." The entire climate is changed by that ordering.  If one starts discussion of a proposal with the problems, somehow the positives are thought of having to decisively overcome the difficulties." (70)</div> <bR> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>